ÉÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍ» º º º * BuddhaNet * Buddha Dhamma Meditation Assoc. º º Web Site: www.buddhanet.net PO Box K1020 Haymarket NSW 2000 º º Email: buddhanet@pobox.com Telephone: +61-2-92123071 º º º ÈÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍÍͼ *** THE RISE OF THE MAHAYANA *** by Graeme LyallThe earliest traces of Mahayana ideas arose with the division of the Buddhistsangha into two vadas or schools of thought around 410 b c., some 110 yearsafter the Buddha's death, at the Second Council of Vaishali. This Council wascalled to condemn certain practices of some monks which were contrary to theVinaya or Monk's Code of conduct.Although the majority of monks succeeded inexcommunicating the erring monks, the remaining monks disputed the rules andcertain aspects of the Dharma. One group, opposed to any change whatever,came to be known as the Sthaviravadins (Theravadins) who followed what wasbelieved to be the original teaching as agreed at the first Council followingthe passing of the Buddha. These Sthaviravadins followed a realist line,stating that all phenomena exist and are unstable compounds of elements.They taught that it is necessary for all humans to strive for Arahantship orrelease from the constant round of rebirth (Samsara). They taught thatBuddhas are men - pure and simple, rejecting any notion of their beingtranscendental. The other group, which were in the majority, were known asthe Mahasanghikas, which means followers of the great or major group ofclergy. Like the Sthaviravadins, they accepted the fundamental doctrines astaught by the Buddha, such as: the Four Noble Truths, the Noble EightfoldPath, the doctrine of Anatta or no soul, the law of karma or causation,Paticca Samupada or dependent arising and the stages of spiritual advancementor sainthood. They differed in believing that Buddhas are supramundane andtranscendental, they have no defiling elements, their lives and powers areunlimited. They also believed that the original nature of the mind is pureand that it is contaminated when it is stained by passions and defilements.It was from the Mahasanghikas that the Mahayana was to evolve.The fathers of the Mahayana were considered to be Nagarjuna, who livedbetween the first and second ceturies of our era, and founded what is knownas the Madhamika philosophy or philosophy of the Middle Way and Maitreyanathawho lived in the third century of our era. Maiteyanatha's philosophy wasdeveloped in the fourth century by two brothers, Asangha and Vasubandhu andwas known as Yogacara or Vijnavada philosophy. Yoga means meditation andVijna means consciousness or mind. This also became known as the"Mind Only"school as it emphasised subjective idealism - that consciousness is theultimate reality. Legend has it that Nagarjuna recieved instruction from theNagas (Serpent Kings) when he visited their Dragon's Palace under the sea.Nagarjuna taught that there is neither reality nor non-reality but onlyrelativity. Madhyamika attacked the Sthaviravada belief that everything,evencomponent parts are in perpetual flux or state of becoming. Madhyamikaintroduced the concept of Sunyata or emptiness. It taught that all elements(Dharmas) are impermanent and have no independent existence in themselves.They may be broken down into parts, the parts into sub-parts and so oninfinitely. Therefore, taught Nagarjuna, all phenomena have a relatve asopposed to an absolute existence. All of life is reduced to a single,underlying flux, a stream of existence with an everlasting becoming. However,madhyamika tells us nothing of the nature of this stream of lifeNagarjuna used the dialectic method to ruthlessly negate all pairs ofopposites. He taught that Sunyata is the absolute reality and that there isno difference between Samsara (the phenomenal world) and Sunyata (theindescribable absolute).Another important concept attributed to Nagarjuna is his teaching of Samvrtior relative truth and Paramartha or ultimate truth. Relative truth isconventional or empirical truth - that experienced by the senses, whereas,the ultimate truth is Sunyata which can only be realised by transcendingconcepts through intuitive insight.The Idealism of the Yogacara school teaches not only non existence of theself but also of things in the world. It says that all elements are derivedfrom the mind. It talks of Alaya Vijnana or repository consciousness. Thisis neither matter nor mind itself but a basic energy that is the root of both.It is the imperceptible and unknowable noumenon behind all phenomena. AlayaVijnana is a kind of collective unconscious in which seeds of all potentialphenomena are stored and from which they occasionally come into manifestation.Alaya Vijnana has been likened to the Elan Vital of Bergson, the Energy ofLeibnitz, and the Unconsciousness of Von Hartman. It is, in effect, what manymight understand as and call "God".The Yogacara school emphasised that the ultimate truth can only be knownthrough meditation. The study of scriptures or Dharmas are only in the realmof relative truth and are subject to change and constant improvement.Scriptures are likened to a finger pointing at the moon. When we recognisethe moon and its brightness and beauty, the finger is of no more use. As thefinger itself has no brightness whatever, so the scriptures have no holiness.The scripture is to be thought of as religious currency reprsenting spiritualwealth. What it stands for is of paramount importance, not whether it is madeof gold or sea shells.Whereas Madhyamika teaches about two truths - relative and absolute, Yogacaradivides truth into three - Illusory truth which is a false attribution to anobject because of causes and conditions - Empirical truth which is knowledgeproduced by causes and conditions which is relative and practical and finallyAbsolute truth which is the highest truth. An example may be seen in a coilof rope lying on a road. At first glance it may be seen as a snake - this isIllusory truth. On closer examination it is seen as a coil of rope - this isEmpirical truth but on further examination it may be seen to be a collectionof chemical elements which may further be seen as electrons, protons andneutrons in a certain combination and ultimately as mere energy appearing asform.Both the Madhyamika and Yogacara schools were the roots of what is known asMahayana Buddhism. Some special doctrines emphasised by the Mahayana are:The Bodhisattva Ideal. Buddhism teaches that there are three alternativesfor attaining the final goal of Nirvana. Firstly there is the Arahant Idealwhich is emphasised by the Sthaviravada or as it is currently known - theTheravada. This is release from the Samsara by following the teachings of anenlightened Buddha by the cultivation of Sila (Good Conduct), Samadhi (Mentalcultivation or meditation) and Prajna (Trancendental Wisdom of seeing thingsas they really are).The Mahayana, on the other hand emphasises the Bodhisattva Ideal ofpostponing one's liberation so that one may bring all sentient beings withyou to that state of Nirvana by becoming a fully enlightened Buddha. TheMahayanists, perhaps, wrongly claim that the Arahant Ideal of the Theravadinsis selfish because it limits the release to oneself. Arahants, althoughlacking the higher wisdom of a Buddha, also teach and also must transcend theidea of self and greed, so such a charge seems unjustified. The Theavadinsalso suggest that attaining Buddhahood is the highest ideal but it isdifficult and beyond most people's capabilities. The final method ofliberation is that of a Pratyeka Buddha. One who usually arises during aworld period when the Buddha Dharma is extinct and attains Buddhahood throughself realisation but is incapable of teaching others.Six Perfections: (Paramita)One who is following the bodhisattva path must cultivate the six perfectionsof giving or generousity, morality or good conduct, patience, vigour,meditation and wisdom.Compassion and Skill in Means:Karuna or Compassion is considered by the Mahayana to be as important asWisdom. They are the Supreme Combination. Compassion may be considered asfeeling the sorrows of others as one's own with the wish that one could takethem on to oneself to relieve that suffering in others. Skill in Means is theability to use the appropriate means to help each individual case. It is acase of the end result justifying the means employed.Buddha - the Transcendental Principle:Not the Theravadin Concept of Buddha the man who was born Prince Siddharthaat Lumbini but Buddha as a transcendental Principle which manifests atinnumerable times.Trikaya or Three Body Doctrine:This is a purely Mahayana concept of the Buddha having three bodies:Nirmanakaya - or appearance body, the way the Transcendental Principleappears in the world, such as the material body of Sakyamuni Buddha.Dharmakaya Body:The Dharma body - the eternal Dharma which lies beyond all dualities andconceptions.Sambhogakaya Body:The Enjoyment or Bliss Body which appears to Bodhisattvasin the celestialrealm.The Devotional Aspect:This has been likened to the bhakti or devotional cults in Hinduism. It isthe worship of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas, especially Amitabha Buddha by thePure Land sect of the Mahayana where constant repetition of the name"Amitaba" is believed to result in rebirth in the Western Paradise of BuddhaAmitabha, the Buddha of infinite light. Another popular Bodhisattva isAvalokitesvara, the embodiment of compassion, known in China as Kwan Yin.She is worshipped and called upon for help when a crisis occurs. Moresophisticated Buddhists see these deities as aspects of Buddha and fix theirminds on them in the hope of assimilating their qualities.Role for Laity:Theravada Buddhism places great emphasis on the clergy (Sangha) as the onlyones capable of attaining Nirvana. The laity support them in the hope of amore favorable rebirth. In the Mahayana Teachings, the laity as well as theclergy are encouraged to become Bodhisattvas. They are also capable ofattaining Enlightenment as householders. The Vimalakirti Nidesa Sutra iscentred on concept of the enlightened householder.Shunyata:The final important Mahayana concept is that of Shunyata or the emptiness ofinherent existence. The absence of any kind of enduring or self sustainingessence. This is much the same as the Theravadin concept of anatta or non-self.Many Buddhists, especially Westerners, tend to see both the Theravada andMahayana approaches as not being contradictory or in opposition but ratheras complimentary to each other. The Mahayana is often seen as an expansion ofor commentary on Theravadin teachings.